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The Origin of Texture-mapped 3D Games on Home Computer Game Machines

This article is concerned with the first 3D texture-mapped computer games to appear on Western home computer game machines.

In the sphere of 3D graphics a texture map is an image that is applied to polygonal surfaces of 3D objects in virtual space. Texture maps are subject to a material layer which defines the nature of a surface (e.g., its reflectivity or real-world material composition, such as wood or metal).

Thus, the applied texture map takes on the properties of its underlying material as well as the shape of the polygonal surface; that is, the texture map automatically wraps around or is mapped to the surface. Naturally, the texture map is auto-subject to perspective -- but from a coding point of view that is easier said than done.

The object of texture-mapping is to increase graphical realism and give the illusion of increased geometric complexity. Supposedly, this adds to "immersion".

Texture-mapped games were preceded by flat-shaded games which were preceded by wireframe games such as FS1 Flight Simulator of 1979.

Note that some flat-shaded games employ dithering or pattern-filling to add "texture" to surfaces, but that is not texture-mapping. That said, such techniques often yielded impressive results.

Textures can also be used to deform surfaces to which they are mapped, but I am not concerned with bump-mapping in this treatment range, which focuses on early t-mapped games.

Early texture-mapped games were mostly software-rendered via CPUs from 1991 to 1996, but by 1997 texture-mapping was commonly hardware-accelerated via dedicated GPUs, which became practically necessary when running polygon-pushers in SVGA resolutions.

Early and notable 3D API middleware included:

Criterion Software's RenderWare of 1993
Argonaut Software's BRender aka Blazing Render of 1993
RenderMorphics' Reality Lab of 1992, upon which Direct3D of 1996 was based
3Dfx Voodoo Glide of 1995
Rendition Vérité Speedy3D of 1996
SGI's OpenGL of 1992 was not used in PC games of the early 90s (3D IRIX & NT workstations only)

Note that, in the early days, and depending on the nature of the 3D code (3D can be coded in many ways; there is no right or wrong way), GPU-based hardware-accelerated 3D could actually be slower or less consistent in framerate than CPU-based software-rendering due to the need for interfacing between CPU and GPU, which often caused bottlenecking.

In addition, hardware-accelerated 3D graphics was not as individuated as software-rendered 3D graphics (under the aspect of API function standardization leads to lack of individuation).

It depends on polygon-count and countless other factors, but i80386DXes generally software-rendered texture-mapped geometry at 30 FPS in 320x200 render-fields.

In the early 90s the 386DX was the entry-level CPU for running texture-mapped games. No DX math coprocessor, only SX? -- Slideshow.

Factors that influence 3D-engine framerate include screen resolution, texture-map resolution, number of polygons, number of light sources, number of shadows, color depth, shader-type, reflection maps, number of articulated animation frames on 3D models, rag-doll physics and special effects such as particles, lens flares and light-beams.

30 FPS was actually an acceptable framerate in the early-to-mid 90s. For example, Doom of 1993 ran at 35 FPS on 11-MIP 386DXes and Quake of 1996 ran at 40 FPS on 190-MIP Pentium 100s.

Computer-game journalism retroactively romanticizes early 3D-game framerates; they think everything has always been "60 FPS" -- but the simple truth is that most gamers were playing at low framerates until the advent of GPUs.

By "render-field", I mean the screenspace that is actually being updated by the rendering engine. The render-field can also be referred to as the render-space, drawspace or viewport. The render-field is distinct from borders and UI elements; an exceedingly important distinction to make! Yes, the 3D game displays in 320x200, but how big is its render-field? Tell me that!

As with active 2D drawspaces, render-field dimension reduction is sometimes based on hardware restrictions or stems from programmer incompetence or ignorance. Other times, UI elements are necessary for interaction. Sometimes UI elements are drop-away.

If I append "sprite-scaler" to an entry then that means the computer game is not rendering objects or actors in 3D but rather scaling, rotating and animating 2D sprites. Doom is a prime example.

Likewise, if I append "Fully-3D" to an entry then that means the objects and actors that appear on the interactable part of the render-field are 100% 3D polygonal; perhaps only with 2D explosion cores, particle effects and/or horizon-map.

As far as I'm concerned, if the objects and actors are rendered in 3D on-the-fly as per floors, ceilings, walls and terrain; if the 3D objects and actors seamlessly adhere to the 3D world-space -- that's a fully-3D game.

Up/down looks are NOT a prerequisite for 3D-hood: some 3D games do not WANT them. Do you want to look up/down while driving a Formula One racer at 200 mph? "Oh, look at the clouds!" Dead.

It should go without saying, but fully-3D games are usually more authentic and realistic than those that employ sprites. In addition to their crude and unbelonging appearance, by their very nature sprites can never scale, rotate or animate in harmony with 3D world-spaces; they are always out of sync, no exceptions.

Number of texture-mapped computer games currently chronicled (incl. different versions): 79.

This document was last updated on July 20, 2025.

1991 Texture-mapped Games

I would like to preface this chronological coverage by declaring that texture-mapping is overrated.

In the early 90s, instead of tiny texture-mapped render-fields with 2D sprite-scaled objects and actors I would rather have seen large flat-shaded render-fields with 3D objects and actors.

The increased processing power of early-90s CPUs should have been employed for flat-shaded games with increased fidelity, geometric complexity and framerates (and physics) rather than for texture-mapping in smaller render-fields than even flat-shaded games of the 80s.

Texture-mapping was and still is a massive resource hog and storage-space hog -- for practically zero gain. And in too many cases t-mapped games look even worse than flat-shaded ones from 1987.

The obsession with texture-mapping uglified computer games and reduced their graphical clarity; it took away from advancements in fidelity, physics, lighting and geometric complexity, such as spartan edge bevels. Texture-mapping is a cheap way to fake geometric form and complexity, but no one with an eye for 3D can be fooled by trickery. You don't paint over sculptures or stick things onto them -- form is everything. A sculpture that has any foreign material applied to it becomes a knick-knack: ruined.

Indeed, the obsession with texture-mapping adversely impacted computer game history by stunting the development of more important technologies for a decade, such as physics engines, which can be employed to enhance gameplay, unlike texture-mapping.

That said, it was possible, even in the early 90s, to employ texture-mapping that actually looked good, but most developers did not know how to do that (you use it sparingly or hide most of it in shadow) or were more concerned with texture-mapping for its own sake rather than with how it can be used to enhance the visuals of a game.

I am convinced that we could have been playing much more realistic and immersive 1990s computer games if texture-mapping was put on the back-burner for a decade. Texture-mapping was just easier to market to the masses because you can't show physics in screenshots, and it wasn't easy to discern polygon-counts in 1990s screenshots either.

If you learn anything from my f-shaded and t-mapped articles, it should be this:

Form + fidelity + framerate = the eye of the patrician
Texture-mapping + color depth = the eye of the peasant
Fully-3D polygonal = patrician
3D + sprite-scaled = peasant
Sprite super-scaler = patrician

Refer to my Wing Commander Overview for more patrician-peasant comparisons.

Catacomb 3-D PC DOS 1991

Catacomb 3-D: The Descent was released by id Software for IBM PC MS-DOS in November of 1991. Catacomb 3-D is notable for being the first texture-mapped computer game to be released. Coded by John Carmack, John Romero and Jason Blochowiak, Catacomb 3-D displays in EGA 320x200, but its render-field is only 265x144px.

Notable as well is Catacomb 3-D's employment of wall-destructibility and strafing.

Catacomb 3-D was distributed on 1x 3.5" 720kB DD diskette and can be manually copied to hard disk drive. The install size of v1.0 is 560K and consists of 7 files. Catacomb 3-D audio supports PC Speaker, Sound Blaster and AdLib. Catacomb 3-D supports keyboard and joystick control.

Sprite-scaler.

1992 Texture-mapped Games

Ultima Underworld PC DOS 1992

Ultima Underworld: The Stygian Abyss was released by Origin Systems in March of 1992. Ultima Underworld was developed by Blue Sky Productions for IBM PC MS-DOS.

Running in 256-color VGA at 320x200 resolution, Ultima Underworld requires at minimum an i80386SX CPU, 557K of free conventional memory, 480K of EMS memory and 256K of vRAM. UU also requires 8 megs of hard disk drive space.

Ultima Underworld is notable for being the first texture-mapped computer game to be developed and demonstrated. Chris Green of FS2 fame coded the texture-mapping algorithm employed by Ultima Underworld's 3D rendering engine, which updates its geometry in a piddling 172x112 render-field.

Note that some flat-shaded flight sims featured 640x350-based render-fields in 1987/88, but their polygons were not texture-mapped. Thus, they don't get praise from the mindless masses even though their fidelity and framerates far outstripped UU, five years before UU came out. Moreover, UU's texture-mapping was outstripped within a few months whereas 640x350-based render-fields were not outstripped for seven years (by square-pixel SVGA 640x480).

It was the flat-shaded EGA flight sim that was cutting edge, not these early t-mapped games.

What would you rather play in 1992?

A flat-shaded 16-color EGA UU with a 640x350-based render-field
A texture-mapped 256-color VGA UU with a 172x112 render-field

Wait a moment. Would you perhaps even prefer wireframe 640x350? Think about how much more readable text + stats are in 640x350/400 as well... but they always go for color over clarity, don't they. In computer games with lots of text + stats...

That said, Ultima Underworld is also notable for featuring 3D up/down looks before id Software's games, but that's because id Software were focused on raw action, not looking around slowly. Besides, Cybercon 3 of 1991 was the first 3D game to feature up/down looks, not Ultima Underworld. And anyway, UU doesn't feature proper mouse-look control. Instead, you use on-screen arrows to move about and number-keys to look up/down. Awful. I'd rather not have to deal with up/down looks at all. Such a chore without mouse-look.

And this is why 2D Dungeon Master of 1987 is simply a better first-person game than 3D Ultima Underworld of 1992, even though half a decade separates them.

Like I said, OVERRATED. You'd rather be playing 2D flip-screen cRPGs that look better, play faster and have larger drawspaces.

Ultima Underworld is a cumbersome, exceedingly ugly and massively overrated cRPG whose low-res and warped 3D viewport can actually nauseate players, both literally and figuratively. Think twice before you play it.

Sprite-scaler.

Legends of Valor PC DOS 1992

Synthetic Dimensions released Legends of Valour for Atari ST, Amiga and IBM PC MS-DOS 3.1 in 1992. Legends of Valor was designed by Ian Downend and Kevin Bulmer. Ian Downend programmed the IBM PC version and the 3D NSR System; Paul Woakes and Graham Lilley programmed the ST/Amiga versions.

Legends of Valor requires an Intel 286 CPU, 640K of free conventional RAM and 8.3 megs of hard disk drive space. Legends of Valor displays in 256-color VGA 320x200 (192x100 render-field).

Note the big, thick borders surrounding the tiny render-field.

Sprite-scaler.

Wolfenstein 3D PC DOS 1992

Wolfenstein 3D was released by id Software in May of 1992 for IBM PC MS-DOS 3.0. Programmed by John Carmack, John Romero and Jason Blochowiak, Wolfenstein 3D runs in 256-color VGA 320x200.

Note the untextured ceilings and floors. Max 305x152 render-field. In-game, the render-field can be tailored from 64x32 minimum to 305x152 maximum.

Sprite-scaler.

Wolfenstein 3D requires an i80286-12 MHz CPU and of 570K of free conventional memory. It can also utilize EMS/XMS memory.

The six-episode Wolfenstein 3D was distributed on 1x 3.5" 1.44MB HD diskette, 2x 3.5" 720kB DD diskettes or 4x 5.25" 360kB floppy disks and extracts and installs to hard disk drive via Wolfenstein 3-D Installation and v2.04g of PKWARE's PKSFX Fast! Self-extract Utility. The install size of v1.4 is 2.4 megs and consists of 9 files.

Wolfenstein 3D audio supports AdLib, Sound Blaster, Sound Blaster Pro and Disney Sound Source. Control-wise, Wolfenstein 3D supports mouse, keyboard and Gravis GamePad.

cf. Castle Wolfenstein Apple 2.

Alone in the Dark PC DOS 1992 I-MOTION

1993 Texture-mapped Games

Doom PC DOS 1993

Sprite-scaler. 320x168 render-field.

Liberation Captive 2 Amiga 1993-94

Fully-3D.

Microsoft Flight Simulator 5.0 PC DOS 1993

Strike Commander PC DOS 1993

320x200 render-field. Fully-3D. Gouraud-shaded.

Frontier Elite 2 PC DOS 1993 David Braben

Fully-3D. 320x168 render-field.

IndyCar Racing PC DOS 1993

Fully-3D.

1994 Texture-mapped Games

NASCAR Racing PC DOS 1994

Fully-3D 640x480 render-field in 1994!

U.S. Navy Fighters PC DOS 1994

Fully-3D. 640x480 render-field.

System Shock PC DOS 1994

Wing Commander 3 PC DOS 1994

Rise of the Triad PC DOS 1994

Apogee Software released the shareware version of Rise of the Triad: Dark War in December of 1994 for IBM PC MS-DOS 5.0/4GW Protected mode run-time. The full version was released in February of 1995.

Rise of the Triad requires i80386DX2-40 MHz, 4 megs of RAM and 20 megs of HDD space. Rise of the Triad displays in 256-color VGA 320x200.

Rise of the Triad was distributed by Apogee Software on 5x 3.5" 1.44MB HD diskettes and extracts and installs to hard disk drive via ROTT installation and PKSFX Fast! Self-extract utility v2.04g by PKWARE. The install size of v1.2a is 23 megs and consists of 22 files.

Graphics-wise, Rise of the Triad features tailorable draw detail, violence level and screen size as well as toggleable auto detail adjustment, light diminishing, bobbing and floors and ceilings.

Rise of the Triad audio supports 1- to 8-voices with 8-bit or 16-bit stereo mixing. Rise of the Triad sound effects support Gravis Ultrasound, Sound Blaster, Logitech Sound Man 16, Pro Audio Spectrum, AWE32, Ensoniq SoundScape, AdLib, Disney Sound Source, Tandy Sound Source and PC Speaker.

Rise of the Triad music supports Gravis Ultrasound, Sound Blaster, Logitech Sound Man 16, Pro Audio Spectrum, AWE32, Ensoniq SoundScape, AdLib, WaveBlaster, General MIDI and Roland Sound Canvas.

Rise of the Triad controls support keyboard, mouse, analog joystick, Cyberman, Space Player and Gravis Gamepad.

Rise of the Triad supports network play via 9,600-baud IPX/SPX and serial play via null-modem cable.

Heretic PC DOS 1994

Sprite-scaler.

Elder Scrolls: Arena PC DOS 1994

Sprite-scaler.

Sento PC DOS 1994

47-Tek Inc. released Sento for IBM PC MS-DOS in 1994. Sento is a versus Fighter that displays in software-rendered 3D or hardware-accelerated 3D via the likes of Matrox MGA of 1993-94 and Criterion Software's RenderWare API of 1993.

Sento is Gouraud-shaded and employs a 3D playfield that zooms.

Software-rendered Sento displays in 256-color VGA 320x200 whereas hardware-accelerated Sento displays in 16-bit high-color (65,536 color) SVGA 640x400.

In Sento players choose between one of four Battle Lords of Sento that have been appointed by the Sento Master to battle in the Tamashii Zones.

Aughrax the Immovable aka Aughx of dimension Arinumex
Buzakai Kuragari aka Buzz of Planet Earth
Hoardos Korsh the Headtaker aka Hood of the Jigoku Abyss
SparickLath-Tow aka Spike of planet Kyrash-Tal

Sento was designed by Dan Ross, programmed by Bruce Abe and Bo Yuan, drawn by Dan Ross and Jeff Weir, and composed by Joe Lyford.

Sento requires 5.6 megs of EMS memory and supports Sound Blaster audio.

Fully-3D. RenderWare.

1995 Texture-mapped Games

Wings of Glory PC DOS 1995

1996 Texture-mapped Games

NBA Live 97 PC DOS 1996

Fully-3D.

Hind PC DOS 1996

Su-27 Flanker PC DOS 1996

Syndicate Wars PC DOS 1996

Isometric-esque 3D.

Descent 2 PC DOS 1996

Fully-3D (2D explosion sprites.) Glide.

Strife PC DOS 1996

Rogue Entertainment released Strife: Quest for the Sigil for IBM PC MS-DOS 5.0 and Windows 95 in 1996. Strife was designed by Jim Molinets and programmed by James Monroe and Peter Mack. Strife is based on the Doom engine.

Strife requires an i80486DX-66 MHz CPU, 8 megs of RAM and 70 megs of HDD space, but a Pentium processor is recommended. Strife supports SMARTDRV disk-caching up to 512K. There is 29 megs of voice-acting in Strife; the game will still function if VOICE.WAD is deleted.

Sprite-scaler.

Daggerfall PC DOS 1996

Bethesda Softworks released Daggerfall in 1996 for IBM PC MS-DOS 6.0. Daggerfall was designed by Julian Lefay and coded by Hal Bouma and Lefay.

Aside from its Great Britain-sized open world (which is mostly empty), Daggerfall is notable for its verticality, procedurally-generated dungeons and 3D texture-mapped automap, which can be panned, rotated and trucked.

Otherwise, just like Ultima Underworld of 1992, this is one ugly, clunky and nauseatingly boring computer game to endure. It is also dead-easy like its loathsome sequel, Morrowind.

Fully-3D.

Tomb Raider PC DOS 1996

Core Design of the U.K. released Tomb Raider for IBM PC MS-DOS 5.0 in 1996. Tomb Raider is a cinematic 3D puzzle-platform game that displays in 3rd-person perspective. PC DOS Tomb Raider displays in 256-color VESA SVGA 640x480.

In Tomb Raider players assume the role of the Indiana Jones-like archaeologist and acrobatic adventurer, Lara Croft, who is in search of an ancient three-piece artifact known as the Scion. To this end, Lara Croft makes her way through a series of caves, tombs and temples. Tomb Raider features 16 stages spanning four continents. The Lara Croft 3D model employs over 5,000 frames of animation.

Lara Croft can run, walk, turn on the spot, jump, jump back, roll, dive into water, swim underwater, wade in water, look about, grab onto ledges, vault up onto ledges, drop down from ledges, sidestep and draw and holster guns. In addition, Lara Croft can pick up objects, push and pull objects and pull levers and hit switches.

Tomb Raider is also notable for its target-acquisition system.

PC DOS Tomb Raider was conceived by Toby Gard, lead-programmed by Paul Douglas, lead-drawn by Toby Gard and composed by Nathan McCree.

Tomb Raider requires a Pentium 60 MHz CPU, 580K of free conventional memory, 6.5 megs of EMS memory; that is, 8 megs of RAM. Tomb Raider also requires 20 megs of hard disk drive space, but it is not fully installable to hard disk drive. Instead, most game assets are accessed via CD-ROM.

Tomb Raider employs Rational Systems' DOS/4GW Protected Mode Run-time v.1.97.

Tomb Raider 3D supports 2-meg vRAM video cards based on 3dfx/Voodoo Rush (Glide), Power VR, Matrox Mystique and Rendition Vérité chipsets.

Tomb Raider audio supports Sound Blaster, Sound Blaster Pro, Sound Blaster 16/AWE, Ensoniq SoundScape, Microsoft Sound System, Pro Audio Spectrum 16, Gravis Ultrasound, Gravis Ultrasound Max, ESS AudioDrive, Roland RAP-10, AdLib Gold, NewMedia .WAVJammer and I/O Magic Tempo.

Tomb Raider controls support keyboard and 4-button joysticks or gamepads, such as the Gravis Gamepad.

Dungeon Keeper PC DOS 1997

Screamer Rally PC DOS 1997

Fully-3D. Glide.

Carmageddon PC DOS 1997

Sprite-scaler.

Grand Theft Auto PC DOS 1997

Glide.

Darklight Conflict PC DOS 1997

Rage Software released Darklight Conflict for IBM PC MS-DOS 6.2 in March of 1997. Darklight Conflict is a space combat simulator that features five pilotable spacecraft, 14 weapons and over 50 single-player missions. Darklight Conflict also supports 6-player IPX network play.

Darklight Conflict displays in 16-bit high-color (65,536 color) VESA SVGA 640x480. Darklight Conflict 3D graphics are texture-mapped, Gouraud-shaded and light-sourced with Babylon 5 / Lightwave 3D-style lens flares. Darklight Conflict graphical detail level is configurable in-game and on-the-fly.

Darklight Conflict controls support keyboard, analog joystick and keyboard and mouse and keyboard.

Darklight Conflict audio is configured via the Miles Design Sound Configuration Utility. Darklight Conflict digital audio supports Creative Labs Sound Blaster, Sound Blaster 16, Sound Blaster Pro, Sound Blaster AWE32, Roland RAP-10, Media Vision Pro Audio Spectrum, Gravis UltraSound, New Media Corporation WaveJammer, Ensoniq SoundScape, Microsoft Windows Sound System and ESS Technology ES688 Digital Audio.

Darklight Conflict was distributed on 1x CD-ROM and extracts and installs to hard disk drive via Darklight Installation Program. The install size is 42 megs and consists of 829 files.

Darklight Conflict requires a Pentium 133 MHz CPU, 16 megs of RAM and 1 meg of vRAM. Darklight Conflict is a v1.97 DOS/4GW Protected mode Run-time.

Published by Electronic Arts, Darklight Conflict was designed by Scott Johnson, programmed by Mark Lyhane and Colin Parrott, composed by Stephen Lord, and drawn by Steven Cain, Paula Cain, John Guerin and Gary Lamb.